Category: Uncategorized

First and foremost, remember your Dura Mata ~ Meninges / Cuda Equina (Horses Tail) – it’s the ‘tail end’ of the connective element of your PSN > Parasympathetic Nervous System, your SNS > Sympathetic Nervous System, and your ANS > Autonomic Nervous System …  within this facia you receive stimuli from your Myotomes (Muscles) and your Dermatones (Skin), you have receptor’s and responders, pro-preception, it’s all part of your kynasthetic sense … from which there is the classic withdrawal reflex.

Your Lumbar Plexus is part of your Pheranom Magnum – your Spinal Canal.

Your Nerves :

3 major leg nerves – Sciatic, Obturator and Femoral – the Obturator Nerve supplies your adductors and the Femoral Nerve supplies your Quads ..

3 major arm nerves – Radial (back of arm / triceps, back of hand), Median (front inner arm and palm of hand), Ulnar (front outer arm) …. together known as the Brachial Plexus

your funny bone registers the ulnar nerve all the way into your little finger …

5% of your body mass is your nervous system and requires 20% of your total oxygen intake to function healthily

>overstretching can cause nerves to be starved of oxygen

>compression (osteophytes / extra growth and cts, carpal tunnel syndrome)

>entrapment

>frank injury – torn calf muscle or boney fracture

these injurious qualities all mean that the nerve will lose its oxygen supply and become inflamed (itis). It may also lose the ability to transport messages.

Overstretching must always be avoided.

Signs of an Unhealthy Nervous System :

>pain

>pins and needles

>numbness

>muscle weakness

>skin discolourment, bagginess

The Biostrata, in all its glory, has been revealed. If you have read through from beginning to end you can now, from that knowledge, draw certain principles that will point you the way to a near perfect human health (something very hard to come by in this modern day society).

Remember!

Human cells are not human beings. Human cells are components of the human body and therefore belong to the human being.

The Biostrata (each stratum) are degrees of expression and together, constitute the Soul of Total Existence.

Within the Biostrata, the souls of individual units are ever flowing until finally merging as one main stream, just as all waters flow toward a common level, so too do the individual souls flow to their common level (The Godhead).

Levels of awareness and communication between stratum must take place in comprehensible terms, always consistent with the level of intelligence upon which the unit depends for its consciousness.

The Biostrata are to the Godhead what the colours of the spectrum are to White Light.

It is perhaps unfortunate that sensory units (human beings) are able to freely choose whether they should act in accordance with the Laws of Nature, or indeed, reject them, for far too often the human being does choose to reject and ignore instructions issued from the Godhead and thus ends up in stagnation and premature deterioration.  If the laws of nature (natural life laws) were to be heeded one would be assured of health throughout your entire ‘beingness’ … one would have health of mind, body and spirit.

All instruction (laws of nature) flow naturally through the Biostrata and are only ‘blocked’ or ‘obstructed’ by those units who choose to ignore the instructions in favour of doing one’s ‘own thing’.

Life Force (Prana) flows through the Biostrata too and can be utilised to increase one’s chances of a healthy, happy and successful existence.  Choose to do things ‘contrary to law’ and interfere with the natural flow, then so be it, at your own demise.

For true health and successful living :-

Allow instruction to flow naturally from the Godhead to the Pranic Stratum, without interference.

Fully Appreciate this by pondering upon :-

Of TOTAL existence, the Godhead is INFINITESIMAL WHOLE, the Biostrata, the INFINITE WHOLE

CREATION is the out-pouring of the Supreme Controlling Force (Nature) from the infallible Godhead to the Pranic Stratum whereas the ‘struggle’ to return to the Godhead is otherwise known as LIFE.

 

So we’ve come a long way from the big ‘Pranic’ bang and we have moved through being ‘body’ and ‘mind’ … but what of ‘spirit’?  the triple role of the human being.

Spirit is the human being’s potential for doing that which has not yet been done. ‘Spirit’ is the inherent quality of purpose which enables man to ‘move’ within the Biostrata.

Man, as pure spirit, reaches upwards to the Spiritual Stratum so that he may learn more of the truth about that superior existence. A spirit that is fully alive and reaches up towards the Spiritual Stratum is a Spirit of Divine purpose. It will enable a human being to live according to the divine laws of nature itself, a natural existence.

A Spirit which favours expanding in the Sensory Stratum rather than reaching upward into the unknown is a Spirit ‘out of tune’ with the preordained system of existence, and therefore shall not receive the support or rewards of that system, (Nature).

Such an ‘out of tune’ spirit may appear to be successful, resourceful and progressive within the Sensory Stratum, but excess of Sensory expansion via experience and knowledge bodes unwell unless man can reach upward to the Spiritual Stratum. Making fair use of Sensory experience as a means of ascending the Biostrata is potentially the makings of the most wholesome, living spirit.

Man is spirit. Ascending the Biostrata makes man vital.

Spirit reveals itself as pure emotional force, the driving force behind ambition, love, devotion, happiness and joy but on the flip side these are not the only outlets for emotional drive, so too there is hatred, envy, sloth, jealousy.

A weak emotional driving force results in depression and boredom and apathy and indicates a waning spirit, a spirit moving in the wrong direction within the Biostrata, a spirit driven ‘off course’ and definitively ‘out of tune’ with the preordained natural system of existence.

It is misleading to believe that we, as human beings, belong to only the Sensory Stratum. Human consciousness, having evolved, for most, no further than the Sensory Stratum, leave a very vast expanse of ‘unexplored terrain’ between present awareness and the ultimate state of awareness up there in the Godhead.

The full range of the Biostrata, from Pranic Stratum to Godhead, reveals the existence of the timeless essence of the human being. However, due to human being’s attachment in the realms of Sensory stimuli and images we are almost totally unaware of any part of our existence above what we live through on a day to day basis.

Our main consideration should be the encouragement of all human conscisouness to ascend higher with the ultimate destination being the Godhead, All Consciousness (Awareness). Every human would benefit from laying a path upward through the unknown territory.

When a unit of a stratum starts to deteriorate, surrendering to the re-cycling processes, then it leaves behind a vacancy needing to be filled so that ascent toward the Godhead may be continued by another consciousness. This would seemingly suggest that when a unit ‘vacates’ on its path toward the Godhead, an emptiness remains until some other unit comes along to fill it and progress with the role of the original occupying unit … this is generally what occurs, however it is not a random exchange that takes place, remember, units have to gel with each other, a progressive series of groupings needs to take place to reach a final integration to become one. The path laid has to cumulative with all the natural existence’s system upward through the Biostrata. The Soul of a human being is the path already laid and this goes for the Soul of a Cell, of a Molecule, of an Atom.  Hence when one Human Consciousness drops out of the race, a whole new batch has to replace, and this can take much time to replenish. In the meantime, the consciousness of the race dropping back as a whole, depleting, deteriorating.  Thus, a unit (human being) may stagnate by allowing its path to stray from direct ascent of the Biostrata but this merely delays progress.  The ultimate destiny of the path (soul) is toward the Godhead.  Reflect here upon Reincarnation. If this cannot be as yet accepted then refer to the Cellular Stratum.

When a cell dies (deteriorates, enters re-cycling processes) another cell moves in to continue along the same course so as to fulfill the role and function of the cell that ‘died’. The new cell possesses the ‘soul’ of the dead cell and thus continues laying the same path. If this were not the case then our bodies would not be maintained and permit growth. Nothing would exist beyond the ‘molecular’ stage and because the Biostrata can exist only in its entirety or not at all, there would be no existence.

So, the soul is the developing path that leads to the Godhead and a long line of successive individuals may have engaged in the laying of the path, and many more may be needed to complete the same, but, when consciousness reaches the Godhead, that soul will be of the Godhead and will be pure and infallible, timeless and in absolute existence.

Man would do well to comply with the laws of the Supreme Controlling Force of the Biostrata (otherwise known as ‘the Laws of Nature’) for if the laws are ignored and/or violated then there is penalty to be paid, such as, ill-health, retardation of soul development, premature death (re-cycling), pain, fear. If however, the laws are complied with then one is assured of good health, speedy soul development together with a fulness of life.

How to we get to know such laws?

Control over how a human being is composed is partly the result of preconditioning of all components (atoms, molecules, cells) and partly by instruction from the sensory unit to its cells and so on downward. All stratum respond accordingly to either precondition or instruction. Therefore a higher stratum can control a lower (subservient) stratum.  Now it is due to this ‘handing down’ of instruction through the strata that ascension can take place. To qualify for promotion (a lower strata unit becoming a higher strata unit) that lower unit must prove itself, its capability, its compliance, its ability to communicate via its consciousness with the intelligence above itself – it is about receptivity and being influenced in accordance with the laws.  Think about meditation. Learning to ‘open’ the mind to receive instruction from the Spiritual Stratum.  If man does not open his mind enough, he will stagnate in the Sensory Stratum.

The Laws of Nature emanate from the Godhead and opeate through every stratum of the Biostrata. They are progressive laws and demand far less from the units of the lower strata than of the highly complex and developed units of the higher strata.

Due to the very nature of the human being, consciousness is mainly concerned with materialism, with each individual having materialistic attitude toward life and these humans are predominantly ‘BODY’ persons who will progress slowly through the Biostrata, who have weak Spirit and are Self-centred and mundane of Mind.

The human being who encourages expansion of consciousness within the Sensory Strata could be one of a higher professional, a human of intelligent calibre, whatever their profession however, they will be one of a ‘MIND’ person. Their progress through the Biostrata will be speedier than that of a BODY person, but nevertheless will still be slow.

The speediest ascent through the Biostrata is predominantly a ‘SPIRIT’ person, one whose consciousness reaches up and beyond the limits of the Sensory Stratum. One who reaches out into the unknown by using the experience of Mind and Body to facilitate Spiritual advancement. A SPIRIT person is usually an aesthetic human being. Communicating via the ARTS or DEVOTION to his fellow man, with much of what he does being the result of inspiration or intuition.

 

 

 

Currently there are five workfare schemes in use in the UK :-

> The Work Programme : coalitions’ flagship workfare scheme which replaced Labour’s Flexible New Deal in Summer 2011. Claimants are referred to private companies who can organise mandatory unpaid work placements for as long as six months. Refusal means loss of benefits.

> Mandatory Work Activity : the Job Centre can order claimants to work up to 30 hrs a week for a period of four weeks without pay. Refusal to comply means loss of benefits.

> Community Action Programme : currently being trialled in some regions and due to be rolled out nationally in 2013. Similar to the Work Programme but claims to focus more on community service work; these roles will replace many of the low-level public sector jobs that are currently being cut by councils. Refusal means loss of benefits.

> Work Experience : This scheme, alongside Sector Based Work Academies (below) are what the government want you to think the term ‘workfare’ means, because are the least offensive of the workfare schemes. They tend to describe it as voluntary work experience for 18-24 year olds organised through the Job Centre.

The degree to which the scheme is genuinely voluntary is disputed as there are countless reports of lies and intimidation to get jobseekers to participate and after one week the scheme becomes mandatory. Although recently, to save face, the government has emphasised the voluntary aspect and stated that sanctions would no longer be used against people who refuse to participate.

> Sector based Work Academies : similar to work experience but this scheme incorporates a training element alongside unpaid work placements; available through the job centre in conjunction with businesses and training providers. Like work experience the scheme is nominally voluntary, however once a claimant accepts a place the scheme becomes mandatory and withdrawal may result in loss of benefits.

In addition to workfare proper, there are also other ways in which the minimum wage is being undercut. A major one of these is the spread of supposed ‘apprenticeships’. Increasingly, entry-level admin jobs are being advertised as apprenticeships, which means they can pay £100 per week (higher than £67 per week jobseekers allowance for workfare, but lower than the minimum wage). Previously these were normal, paid jobs, but now firms can get cheap labour by rebranding entry-level jobs as apprenticeships and giving a low-level NVQ in admin (which doesn’t help find work, as higher-level admin jobs require experience, not NVQs).

 

The scene is now set. We have Mind in Symbolic form. A virtual working model capable of displaying most of the basic principles of unconscious and conscious activity.

Thus:

CONDITIONING:

What does conditioning mean?

It means training the ‘tiny men’ (subconscious response) to react, in a predetermined manner, to stimuli.

The continuous influx of impressions can act as a stimulus, demanding from the group of ‘tiny men’ receiving that stimulus, some kind of response. For some stimuli the ‘tiny men’ have ready-made responses for which they require no training. These are instinctive responses. There are however an infinite number of stimuli for which no ready-made responses are available and thus make it necessary to train (condition) the ‘tiny men’ in order to provide them with a repertoire of suitable responses.

Faculties of the conscious mind (helicopter crew) shoulder the responsiblity of giving the necessary instructions for training the ‘tiny men’. By repeatedly ordering the ‘tiny men’ to respond to a specific stimulus in a certain way, the ‘tiny men’ eventually learn to respond without orders from the ‘helicopter crew’ and are then said to be CONDITIONED.  Being a part of the subconscious mind the ‘tiny men’ are unthinking, unreasoning, completely obedient, and incapable of responding to stimulus in any other way than that of the conditioned response

So now you know that you are quite capable of carrying out some Conditioning. You have always been able to do it. Conditioning is simply the process of learning – as you learn, you automatically condition your ‘tiny men’ (subconscious responses).

THE POWER OF SUGGESTION

Although it is true to say that much of our behaviour is the result of conditioning, it is also true to say that suggestion controls and helps ‘shape’ our behaviour.

Suggestion selects specific conditioned responses, which, in turn, manifest as specific types and patters of behaviour. Often we find ourselves responding in a particular way to a particular situation either as the result of suggestion from an external source or suggestion arising from our own conscious reasoning.

Many psychologists maintain that the subconscious does not have the power to reject suggestion. That is to say that all suggestions reaching the subconscious mind, must produce the intended responses.

Other psychologists are not entirely convinced of the subconscious mind’s indiscriminate responsiveness., but are, nevertheless, prepared to accept that the principle does work when special preparations have been made to provide ideal conditions. Either way, it is obvious that suggestion can influence behaviour.

To the ‘tiny men’, suggestions are stimuli to which they will respond at all times, according to their conditioning or instinct. Why is it then, that when we suggest something to someone, we rarely succeed in making it work the way we want it to work?

The reason for this unsatisfactory state of affairs is the intervention of the conscious mind; and in particular, one of its faculties known as the Censor. When we try to influence someone by suggestion, it must be remembered that we are trying to get the suggestion through to the ‘tiny men’. But, the conscious faculties are always lurking, and if they intervene they could order the ‘tiny men’ to respond in a manner entirely different from the conditioned response, or order them not to respond at all.

There are FOUR ways of dealing with conscious intervention:-

SUBLIMINAL SUGGESTION = with this method the suggestion is delivered to the ‘tiny men’ without attracting the attention (light beam). this means that the suggestion gets through to the ‘tiny men’ without any of the conscious faculties (helicopter crew) being aware of the fact

CONSCIOUS ACCEPTANCE = here we have the salesperson. In using this method, one must present the facts for the approval of the conscious faculties (helicopter crew). If they approve, then the ‘tiny men’ will be allowed to respond according to their conditioning or instinct. everything takes place in the ‘light’ of attention making the conscious mind fully aware of both the suggestion and the response

CONSCIOUS SUSPENSION = conscious suspension is the mental state of heightened suggestibility. Hypnotic techniques are often used to induce this state. By being subjected to a monotonous succession of unchanging sensory stimuli, the conscious faculties (helicopter crew), including the censor, are lulled into a state of complacency. With there being little or no attention, suggestions would pass to the subconscious without the intervention of the conscious faculties.

EMOTION = reason can become impaired or inhibited by emotion. In fact, quite a number of our conscious faculties can become impaired by emotion. How often have you witnessed a situation in which someone is emotionally upset and unable to think clearly? it is on occasions like this that the impaired faculties of the conscious mind allow unreasonable, futile and sometimes harmful suggestions to filter through to the subconscious. Most stimuli arouse some degree of emotion and by choosing to present those stimuli most likely to provoke the strongest feelings of emotion, one can be reasonably certain of making suggestion work.

 

The various systems of the body are named according to the function they perform.

SKELETAL: this system consists of bones forming a movable framework for the body, and protection for some of the soft organs such as the lungs, brain, etc

ARTICULATORY: the articulatory system is concerned with the joints, or articulations of the skeleton

MUSCULAR: the muscular system consists of muscles, fascia and tendons and is responsible for bodily movement

RESPIRATORY: this system contains the various organs concerned with respiration (breathing).  When we breathe correctly with the mouth closed, the air enters the nostrils and passes to the two lungs (left and right) via the Pharynx (throat), Larynx (upper end of windpipe), the Trachea (windpipe) and finally, the Bronchi (bifurcation of the trachea to each lung). After entering the lungs, the air gives up oxygen which is carried by the red corpuscles in the blood, to the tissues of the body. Carbon dioxide, a waste product, is picked up by the blood and carried back to the lungs where it is expelled during exhalation.

DIGESTIVE: the digestive system deals with the body’s intake of food and with the preparation of that food for assimilation by the body. The digestive system consists of the Alimentary Canal and certain secretory glands. The alimentary canal extends from the mouth to the rectum and is over 9 metres in length. It consists of the following:-

The Mouth

The Pharynx

The Oesophagus (food pipe)

The Stomach

The Small Intestine

The Large Intestine (Colon)

The Rectum

As food passes along the alimentary canal, special juices from glands such as the salivary glands, gastric glands, pancreas etc, pour into the alimentary canal to mix with the food and break it down into simple substances which can be digested and absorbed by the cells of the tissues of the body. The indigestible residue enters the rectum and is excreted as faeces.

CIRCULATORY: the circulatory system is responsible for circulating the blood throughout the body. It consists mainly of the Heart positioned in the Thorax (chest) and three types of tubes – namely, Veins, Arteries and Capillaries. The heart is in fact a pump. It pumps the blood through a network of arteries, capillaries and veins. Carried by the Superior Vena Cava (vein) from the upper parts of the body and by the Inferior Vena Cava (vein) from the lower parts, impure blood enters the right Atrium of the heart, is forced through a valve into the right Ventricle and is pumped from there through the Pulmonary Artery to the lungs. The impurities int he blood are discharged in the lungs as carbon dioxide. Oxygen is picked up by the red corpuscles in the blood and the purified blood passes through four Pulmonary veins, two from each lung, into the left Atrium of the heart. It is then forced through a valve into the left Ventricle, where it is pumped through the Aorta (large artery) into a network of smaller arteries. All arteries branch off into a number of smaller arteries, the smallest being called Arterioles. These get smaller and smaller until they become Capillaries, and give off enriched blood to the tissues through their thin porous walls. Impurities from the tissues are absorbed through the capillary walls and carried into very tiny veins called Venules, eventually entering the larger veins and finally into the heart, thus completing one cycle of this repetitive function. As the blood circulates, it carries oxygen from the lungs to the tissues, and carbon dioxide from the tissue cells to the lungs. It carries digested food from the digestive system to the cells and waste products to the kidneys for excretion It conveys hormones from the glands to the cells and carries heat from the inside of the body to the surface. Also the blood protects the body against disease and germs.

EXCRETORY: this system consists of the Skin, Kidneys, Lungs and Colon

The Skin gives off sweat

The Kidneys excrete urine which is stored in the bladder and voided when the bladder is full

The Lungs eliminate Carbon Dioxide

The Colon excretes certain insoluble substances in the faeces

REPRODUCTIVE: the reproductive system is responsible for the reproduction of the species. It produces spermatozoa in the male and ova in the female.

NERVOUS: the nervous system is responsible for communication between the various parts of the body. It operates as controlling system for governing the activities of the various parts and organs of the body and it makes possible, awareness of response to environment

The Nervous System (for convenience) is divided into two main parts. They are the Central (Cerebrospinal) System and the Autonomic System. Since the autonomic system is dependent on the cerebrospinal nervous system we’ll concentrate on the cerebrospinal system.

the cerebrospinal nervous system consists of the brain, the spinal cord and the peripheral nerves given off by these, to the outer parts of the body. 31 pairs of nerves emerge from the spinal cord, each nerve having two roots / one anterior (front of the spine) carrying motor nerves and one posterior (back of spine) carrying sensory nerves. Motor nerves carry impulses to the muscles having the responsibility for bodily movement whereas the sensory nerves have responsibility for carrying sensory impulses which provide for the brain, information about sensation.

the nerves are named according to the section of the spine from which they emerge:-

8 pairs of cervical nerves

12 pairs of thoracic (dorsal) nerves

5 pairs of lumber nerves

5 pairs of sacral nerves

1 pair of coccygeal nerves

in addition to the Spinal nerves we have 12 pairs of cranial nerves. some of these are motor nerves, some are sensory, some are motor and sensory and others are mixed, possessing both motor and sensory fibres.

the following is a list of the Cranial nerves:-

OLFACTORY: sensory nerve of smell

OPTIC: sensory nerve of sight

OCULO-MOTOR: motor nerve supplying most of the muscles of the eye

TROCHLEAR: motor nerve to the external oblique of the eye

TRIGEMINAL: the largest cranial nerve, it is motor and sensory. mainly a sensory nerve but has a small motor branch to the muscles of mastication. the trigeminal nerve supplies most of the skin of the face and the head, it also supplies the teeth and membranes of the mouth and nose.

ABDUCENS: motor nerve to the lateral rectus muscle of the eyeball.

FACIAL: motor and sensory. mainly a motor nerve to the muscles of expression of the face, and to the scalp, but sensory in that it is concerned with taste

ACOUSTIC: sensory nerve of hearing

GLOSSO-PHARYNGEAL: a mixed nerve. it is a motor nerve to a muscle of the pharynx, secreto-motor to the parotid gland, and sensory to part of the tongue and soft palate. it is the nerve of taste

VAGUS: a mixed nerve supplying larynx, pharynx, lungs, heart, stomach, oesophagus and liver

SPINAL ACCESSORY: usually considered to a be a motor nerve, it divides into two parts. One part accompanying the vagus and the other branching to the trapezius and sterno-mastoid muscles

HYPOGLOSSAL: motor nerve to the muscles of the tongue

Endocrine Glands are ductless glands, so-called because the secretion they make does not leave the glands through ducts, but passes directly into the blood circulating through the substance of the glands.

The active principle of the secretion of an endocrine gland is called Hormone. Some glands produce a single hormone, whilst others produce two or more.

The following is a list of endocrine glands:-

Pineal

Pituitary

Thyroid

Parathyroid

Thymus

Adrenal

Parts of the Pancreas

Parts of the Ovaries and Testes

PINEAL – the function of the pineal gland is obscure. It is believed to be concerned with growth, but there are those who believe it to be associated with psychic experience.

PITUITARY – this is sometimes called the Master Gland. Through its hormones it influences most of the other ductless glands of the body.

THYROID – the thyroid is concerned with metabolism, regulating the chemistry of the tissues. It is also instrumental in regulating oxygen consumption and the expulsion of carbon dioxide. Under-activity in this gland causes a secretion deficiency which retards physical and mental growth in children. In adults, the metabolic processes slow down, there is a tendency to put on weight, movements become lethargic and there is a slowing down of the mind. Over-secretion produces just the opposite. The individual becomes excitable and nervous. Sufferers lose weight and become irritable. In spite of eating well, they remain thin, and the pulse rate is rapid.

PARATHYROID GLANDS – the parathyroid glands are two pairs of tiny oval bodies embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. Under-secretion causes the muscles to go into spasm. Over-secretion causes the bones to soften. There is also depression of the nervous system.

THYMUS – Its functions are not known, but it is thought to be concerned with the production of antibodies.

ADRENAL GLANDS – the secretion of these glands increases when we become angry or experience fear. Secretion is also increased in states of asphyxia and starvation. This increase in output raises the blood pressure in order to counteract the shock produced by these conditions.

THE ISLETS OF LANGERHANS OF THE PANCREAS – one of the main functions of the islet cells is the secretion of insulin, which lowers the blood concentration of glucose and facilitates the transportation of glucose into the cells together with potassium.

OVARiES – these are internal female organs of reproduction. They contain a great number of immature ova. At each menstrual cycle, one of these ova develops into a Graafian Follicle which ripens and eventually ruptures, causing the ovum (singular of ova) to escape into the uterine tube.

TESTES – these are the male organs of generation, where spermatozoa are formed and Testosterone is produced. Testosterone is the male sex hormone. The secretion of testosterone increases at puberty, and is responsible for the development of masculine characteristics such as the growth of facial hair, deepening of the voice etc ..

NOTE: The ovaries and testes are also known as GONADS

Skeletal muscles are responsible for directed voluntary movement under the control of the nervous system.

Muscles are contractile organs and produce motion by their connection with such structures as bones, cartilage, ligaments, fascia and skin. Usually muscles are attached to these structures at two points: one relatively fixed point known as the Origin, and one relatively moveable point called the Insertion. In most cases, the two points are a distance apart and functioning of the muscle is across one or more joints.

A muscle is a fibrous organ possessing considerable elasticity. At the points of origin and insertion, we find attachments where the muscle has become very tough and tendonous. These are called Tendons, and are inserted in the bones and other structures (mentioned above).

Muscles of the skeleton work in groups, and each group works in opposition to another group known as its Antagonist. For instance, taking the biceps and triceps muscles as an example, the biceps muscle, when stimulated by impulses via the nervous system, contracts (shortens and thickens), drawing its point of insertion in the radius towards its origin in the shoulder joint, thus bending the arm. To straighten the arm, the biceps must give way to the opposing pull of the contracting triceps. So from this, we see that the biceps muscle works in opposition to the triceps, and vice versa, thus making one muscle the antagonist of the other.

Muscles have various functions and are classified accordingly. We have Extensors for straightening and extending limbs etc., and for bending the limbs etc .. we have their antagonists called Flexors. Further to these we have other antagonistic pairs such as Abductors and Adductors and Pronators and Supinators.

Following is a list of some of the important skeletal muscles together with the Origin (O), Insertion (I) and Action (A) of each muscle.

STERNO-MASTOID     O. Sternum and Clavicle

I. Mastoid process of the temporal bone

A. Turn and flex the neck

TRAPEZIUS     O. Occiput and spines of the thoracic vertebrae

I. Clavicle and spine of the scapula

A. Extends neck. Braces Shoulders. The upper part lifts the shoulders and the lower part draws the shoulders down.

DELTOID   O. Scapula

I. Radius

A. Raises the arm to right angles with the scapula and draws the arm backwards and forwards.

BICEPS    O. Scapula

I. Radius

A. Flex elbow joint and supinate forearm

TRICEPS  O. Scapula and humerus.

I. Ulna

A. Extend arm

SERRATUS ANTERIOR  O. The 8 upper ribs

I. Scapula

A. Draws scapula forward and is antagonistic to the trapezius

LATISSIUMS DORSI     O. Lower thoracic vertebrae, lumbar vertebrae and crest of ilium

I. Humerus

A. Internal rotation of the shoulder. Adduction of the shoulder, drawing the arm backwards and downwards

PECTORALIS MAJOR    O. Clavicle and 7 upper costal cartilages

I. Humerus

A. Internal rotatio of the shoulder. Adduction of the shoulder and draws the arm across the chest.

RECTUS ABDOMINUS   O. Pubic crest

I. 5th, 6th and 7th costal cartilages

A. Flexes body. Compresses abdominal viscera

OBLIQUE EXTERNUS ABDOMINIS   O. The lower 8 ribs

I. Iliac crest and pubis

A. Assists in the elimination of faeces and urine

GLUTEUS MAXIMUS  O. Iliac crest

I. Femur

A. Extends the hip joint. Rotates inwards and abducts the thigh

SARTORIUS      O. Spine of the ilium.

I. Inner surface of the tibia

A. Abducts the thigh and rotates it inwards and outwards

ADDUCTOR LONGUS   O. Pubis

I. Femur

A. Adducts thigh

QUADRICEPS FEMORIS   The quadriceps femoris consists of 4 musces:-

1. RECTUS FEMORIS   2. VASTUS LATERALIS   3. VASTUS MEDIALS  4.  VASTUS INTERMEDIUS (a deeper muscle than the other 3)

O. Ilium and femur

I. Patella and is joined to the tibia by the patella ligament

A. Flexion of the hip and extension of the knee

ADDUCTOR MAGNUS  O. Pubis and ischium

I. Femur

A. Adducts and rotates the thigh inwards

GRACILIS  O. Pubis and ischium

I. Femur

A. Rotates leg inwards. Adducts and flexes the thigh

HAMSTRINGS  O. Ischium and femur

I. Tibia and fibula

A. Extension of hip and flexion of knee

GASTROCNEMIUS   O. Femur

I. The tendon of this muscle unites with the tendon of the soleus and together they form the Tendo Achillis.

The tendon is inserted into the calcaneum.

A. Flexes the knee and extends the foot

SOLEUS   O. Fibula and tibia

I. The tendon combines with that of the gastocnemius muscle.

A. Extends the foot

TIBIALIS ANTERIOR  O. Tibia

I. Tarsal and metatarsal bones at the inside of the instep

A. Flexes the foot on the leg. Raises the inner border of the foot

 

when studying the muscles of the skeleton, it is useful to know some of the terms applied to various features and contours of bones to which the muscles are attached

SPINE – This is not necessarily a reference to the vertebral column. It is also the name given to a bony ridge such as the spine of the scapula

ILIUM – The ilium is the broad, flat upper part of the innominate bone. Its upper edge ends in a broad ridge called the Iliac Crest

ISCHIUM – This is the lower rear portion of the innominate bone. It carries the Ischial Tuberosity (a protusion) which gives attachment for muscles

PUBIS – The pubis is the front lower part of the innominate bone

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Human Anatomy

The human body is the most ingenious assembly of purposeful components you will ever find on this planet.

Beneath its envelope of skin and tissue, we find muscles, nerves, a circulatory system for the blood, glands, vital organs and that marvellous system of bones called the Skeleton.

Not only is the skeleton responsible for supporting the muscles and the body as a whole, protecting vital organs such as the brain and lungs, it is responsible for our basic size and shape; although the last word in this matter comes from the muscles, with the subcutaneous tissue and skin adding the final touches.

The skeleton consists of 214 bones (this number includes the six small ossicles found in the ears… these ossicles are not listed below) ……

AXIAL SKELETON

The axial skeleton comprises the skull, vertebral column (backbone), sternum (breastbone) and ribs.

APPENDICULAR SKELETON

The appendicular skeleton comprises the limbs, shoulder and pelvic girdle.

The bones of the skeleton are classified according to their shape and formation:

LONG BONES                mainly found in the limbs, fingers etc

SHORT BONES              such as found in the wrists

FLAT BONES                  the shoulder-blades, large bones of the skull etc

IRREGULAR BONES       some facial bones, vertebrae, etc

SESAMOID BONES        bones developed in the tendons of certain

muscles, the kneecap a good example

 

Starting at the top, we have the SKULL.

The skull consists of two main parts – the Cranium and the Face.

The Cranium consists of 8 bones:

1   Occipital bone

2   Parietal bones

1   Frontal bone

2   Temporal bones

1   Sphenoid bone

1   Ethmoid bone

The Face contains 14 bones:

2   Nasal bones

2   Palatine bones

2   Lacrimal bones

2   Zygomatic bones

1   Vomer

2   Inferior Turbinate bones

2   Maxillae

1   Mandible

The Vertebral Column has 33 (sometimes 34) bones in all.

Each separate bone is called a vertebra, (the plural of Vertebra is Vertebrae)

The upper 7 vertebrae are called the Cervical vertebrae and the upper-most two cervical vertebrae permit movment of the neck.  The first cervical vertebra, situated at the very top of the vertebral column is called the Atlas, and the second cervical vertebra is called the Axis. Together these two vertebrae form the Atlanto-axial joint.

Below the cervical vertebrae we have 12 Thoracic vertebrae.

Moving down the vertebral column we come to 5 Lumbar vertebrae.

After the lumbar vertebrae we come to 5 Sacral vertebrae forming the Sacrum.

These 5 vertebrae are flat and fused together in the adult.

Finally, we come to the Coccyx (tail) which comprises 4 (or 5) Coccygeal vertebrae.

In the adult the coccygeal vertebrae are fused together.

Now we come to what is known as the Thoracic Cage.

This consists of 12 thoracic vertebrae (already mentioned) at the back, 12 pairs of ribs at the sides, and the sternum at the front.

Uppermost in the thoracic cage we have 7 pairs of True ribs.

Below the true ribs are 3 pairs of False ribs and 2 pairs of Floating ribs.

Whereas the true ribs (pairs 1,2,3,4,5,6,7) are all attached directly to the sternum, pairs 8, 9 and 10 are attached indirectly to the sternum by means of an attachment of cartilage extending from eaach rib, to the rib above. The lowest ribs (pairs 11 and 12) are not attached to the sternum in any way.

Above the thoracic cage we have the shoulder girdle:-

Left and Right Clavicle (collarbones) / Left and Right Scapula (shoulderblades)

Situated in isolation in the front of the throat is a small bone known as the Hyoid bone.

Attached to each side of the shoulder girdle we have the limbs of the upper body (arms)

nearest the shoulder is the Humerus bone of the upper arm … in the lower part of the arm we have the Radius and the Ulna, two bones placed side by side …

bones of the wrist and hand are:-

the 8 bones of the carpus :-   navicular (scaphoid),

lunate (semilunar),

triquetral,

pisiform,

trapezium,

trapezoid,

capitate,

hamate

the 5 Metacarpals (bones between the fingers and wrist) and 14 Phalanges forming the thumb and 4 fingers

Below the waist we come to the Pelvic Girdle consisting of the 5th lumbar vertebra, the sacrum, and coccyx at the back and 2 Innominate bones encircling the remainder of the region.

Bones of the leg are:-

Femur (Thigh Bone) / Patella (Kneebone) / Tibia (Shin Bone) / Fibula (placed alongside the Tibia)

Bones of the foot are:-

The 7 bones of the Tarsus = Calcaneum (Heel) / Talus / Navicular / Cuboid / 3 Cuneiforms –

The 5 Metatarsals and 14 Phalanges forming the Toes

 

JOINTS of the SKELETON

A Joint (for articulation) is a union of two or more bones of the skeleton

There are three main types:- 1. Fibrous / 2. Cartilaginous / 3. Synovial

These types vary considerably in the amount of movement they permit and may be classified as:-

1. Immovable / 2. Slightly movable / 3. Freely movable

 

FIBROUS JOINTS (Immovable) – A fixed joint allowing no movement whatsoever, eg the sutures (or joints) of the flat bones of the skull … the teeth in their sockets etc

CARTILAGINOUS JOINTS (Slightly movable) – In this type of joint, the joint surfaces are separated by some intervening substance such as cartilage etc eg the intervertebral joints of the vertebral column with their intervertebral discs of fibro-cartilage.

SYNOVIAL JOINTS (Freely movable) – The ends of the bones forming the joint are covered by hyaline cartilage. Ligaments are necessary to bind the bones together, and the joint cavity is filled with synovial fluid and enclosed by a capsule of fibrous tissue.

Varieties of Synovial Joints :-

1. Gliding                eg  small bones of the carpus etc

2. Ball and Socket   eg  hip joint and shoulder joint

3. Hinge                  eg  elbow joint

4. Condyloid            eg  wrist joint

5. Pivot                   eg  Atlanto-axial joint

6. Saddle                eg  joint between the trapezium and first metacarpal bone